Comparing Common Handgun Calibers by Power

Comparing handgun cartridges on the basis of power can help shed light on the terminal efficacy of various calibers across history, and to what degree modern caliber choices are important.  For this comparison, I'll be sorting calibers by range of foot pounds energy (fpe).  When categorizing, I estimated fpe assuming the most common commercially available power range for cartridges that are commonly loaded by people who actually carry or carried that weapon, so these estimates are necessarily speculative on that basis, though still informative when deciding between and among caliber choices.  I am also assuming the most common handgun barrel length for each caliber that is commonly carried.  I also ordered the calibers by date of historical introduction when possible.

0-100 fpe: This power range constitutes the lowest acceptable output of a handgun.  The weapons listed show that this range of power would have been historically considered submarginal by most.  The bow is an exception, but requires a sharpened arrow to deliver terminally effective wounds.  Bullets at this low speed are unlikely to be effective against bone and are more prone to deflection.  Many of the firearms carried in these calibers are carried by individuals who would prefer a handgun for self defense, but either were not able to historically or legally carry more powerful alternatives, or prefer to carry a weapon of very small size and are unconcerned about the limitations of these rounds.

60 pound hunting recurve bow
black powder .31 caliber pocket revolver
.22 lr pocket pistol
.32 S&W long
.25 acp
.22 magnum (snubnose)

100-200 fpe: This power range constitutes the standard expected lethality of a handgun from 1850-1860, which spans much of the American frontier period and American Civil War.  The Colt 1851 Navy was carried across the American west by lawmen and rangers and was widely regarded as effective against human combatants.  As cartridge technology evolved, the .38 short/long cartridges approximated this power range.  Interestingly, these early .38 revolvers were later seen to be famously inadequate in the Philippine insurrection against drugged Moro warriors.  Another analog, the .32 auto was later popular from the early 1900's into the 1950's, most commonly by civilians and military officers who did not expect direct armed conflict.  This power range is likely effective against unmotivated attackers as a tool of persuasion or psychological fear, but is not to be relied on for warfare or against highly motivated attackers.

black powder .36 1851 Colt Navy revolver (round ball)
.38 short/long
.38 special (snubnose)
.32 acp

200-300 fpe: This power range constitutes the standard expected lethality of a handgun after initial development of smokeless powders, improved conical projectiles, and/or improved metallurgy in the late 1800's.  The 1860 Army was a revolver that became possible only after Colt improved handgun materials to the point that larger powder charges could be safely fired in a relatively compact frame.  It should be noted that this range of power was deemed acceptable for use against enemy horses in war and against black bear in the 1850's.  In conjunction with this innovation, better black powder formulae expanded the capabilities of the 1851 Navy revolvers currently in service.  Later, the development of metallic cartridges ushered in the use of larger diameter revolvers like the .45 Schofield, which could reload faster than the Colt system, and .44-40, which could be chambered in both revolvers and lever action carbines.  This power range was retained as the standard expectation of handgun lethality until nearly the 1980's following the widespread adoption of the .38 special (4 inch barrel) as the standard American police arm.  One reason for the use of heavy recoiling .357 cartridges in a snubnose revolver could be to approximate the power of service size .38 special arms in smaller frames.  At the same time, in semi-automatic handguns, the .380 auto cartridge was popular with civilians and military officers as a concealable backup arm that allowed more power than the .32 acp, while still allowing for safe operation in a straight blow-back action and comparable power to the ubiquitous full size .38 specials.  Some prefer the .32 H&R magnum over the .38 special since the smaller diameter allows 6 shots to fit in a concealable J-frame sized revolver that would typically only hold 5 rounds of .38 special.  Another contemporary niche could be individuals who dislike the recoil of .357 in a snubnose platform and prefer the .44 special snubnose for its comparable power with less recoil.

black powder .36 1851 Navy (large powder charge round ball)
black powder .44 1860 Colt Army (round ball)
.45 Schofield
7.62 Nagant revolver
.38 special standard pressure (4 inch barrel)
.380 acp
.44 special (2 inch barrel)
.357 magnum (2 inch barrel)
.32 H&R Magnum

300-400 fpe: This power range constitutes the standard expected lethality of semi-automatic handguns following the advent of designs that allow higher pressured rounds to safely cycle.  Locked breech operating systems allowed for semi-automatic pistols to safely cycle ammunition of high enough pressures that they could not be safely fired in straight blow-back handguns.  This was accomplished with the advent of mechanisms to delay the opening of the firing chamber until pressure had reduced.  The first cartridges of this kind were most common in military applications.  9 mm and .45 acp cartridges were developed for use with locked breech designs in the early 1900's and were deemed adequate for use in war against human combatants.  In revolvers, this power range was achieved first by the development of the 1858 Remington revolver, which allowed a greater powder charge than the Colt pistols due to its enclosed frame.  Later, the merely adequate performance of the .38 special prompted the development of +p+ loadings, which occupied an intermediate power range between standard pressure and .357 magnum pressure and is still a preferred power range among revolver users today.  The ubiquitous modern 9 mm pocket pistols with 3" barrels and modern +p ammunition also occupy this power range, which is widely regarded as adequate for self defense against human combatants.

black powder .44 1858 Remington Army (round ball)
black powder .44 1860 Colt Army (conical)
9mm historical standard pressure/modern pocket pistol with +p ammunition
.44 special (4 inch barrel)
.45 acp standard pressure circa 1940's
.38 sp +p+ Buffalo Bore load (2 inch barrel)

400-500 fpe: In the black powder era, this power range would have only been achievable with large caliber muzzle loading pistols like the Howdah hunting backup pistols and Flintlock pistols in military service loaded with conical bullets, or with extended barrels.  The 1847 Colt Walker was the most powerful of these black powder examples and was the most powerful repeating handgun in existence until the development of the .357 magnum.  It achieved this power range with a 9" barrel and a massive frame carried exclusively by mounted cavalry for intended use against enemy horses or marauding bears.  After the advent of cartridge technology, the .45 Long Colt surpassed the power of most other black powder handgun rounds of its time.  Its competitor, the .44-40 cartridge which won the West had somewhat less power, but could be loaded in both revolvers and carbines, which gave it an advantage in versatility.  In modern revolvers, this power range includes mild .357 magnum cartridges, which can also be loaded in carbines for comparable versatility.  In modern handguns, this power range was first realized by the .40 S&W after the 9 mm standard pressure was deemed inadequate against motivated attackers armed with high powered rifles in the 1986 Miami shoot out.  First the 10 mm was developed, but excessive recoil of the round prompted a reduction to the .40 S&W, which was accepted through the 80's and 90's in American police departments.  Modern ammunition manufacturers also continued to expand their offerings to include modern +p loadings of 9 mm and .45 acp that now rival .40 S&W performance in full size handguns.  This power range is considered more than adequate for self defense against human combatants and used to be considered adequate for hunting fleeing large animals from horseback as well (before more powerful alternatives became available).

black powder .50 caliber musket pistol (w/conical bullet)
black powder .44 Colt Walker 1847
.45 Long Colt
.44-40 revolver
.357 magnum (3 inch barrel)
.40 S&W
.45 acp +p
9 mm +p full size
.327 magnum (3 inch barrel)
.38 sp +p+ Buffalo Bore load (3-4 inch barrel)

500-600 fpe: This power range was initially adopted for use against early body armor worn by mobsters in 1930's USA and against automobile engine blocks.  The development of the .357 magnum by Elmer Keith and ammunition manufacturers allowed for the creation of the most powerful handgun cartridge until the creation of the .44 magnum in the 1950's.  This power range is widely considered devastating against human combatants.  This power range also enabled the first ethical hunting of medium sized game with handguns.  In the modern day, the .357 SIG, .40 S&W +p, and .45 acp +p are the modern examples of this power range in full size semi-automatic handguns.  In 2007, the introduction of the .327 magnum allowed for this energy range with potential for higher capacity in full size revolvers.

.357 magnum (4 inch barrel)
.40 S&W +p
.45 acp +p
.50 GI
.357 SIG (full size)
.327 magnum (4 inch barrel)

600-800 fpe: This energy range encompasses higher end handgun hunting with .357 magnum or .327 magnum, typically used for harvesting deer or small predators with minimal risk of an unethical harvest due to caliber alone.  10 mm was developed to elevate semi-automatic service handguns in power range well above the popular semi-auto caliber choices of the 1980's (9 mm and .45 acp).  It quickly fell out of favor due to being uncontrollable for most agents of the FBI, leading to the development of the less powerful .40 S&W.  The 10 mm load is still carried today as a defense handgun against brown and polar bears, which should speak to the capability and ballistic potential of this power range, especially with suitably designed hard cast bullets.

.357 magnum (6 inch barrel)
10 mm auto (full size)
.327 magnum (6 inch barrel)

900-1,000+ fpe: This power range rivals weak rifle rounds in lethality, making these rounds overkill for personal defense against human combatants.  The most common application of these calibers are for bear and moose defense in the polar region.  Further, these calibers are borderline uncontrollable by even the most seasoned shooters.  In most situations where these magnums would be deployed, a standard rifle caliber would be more effective, more accurate, and less unwieldy, making this power range nearly impractical for most purposes other than large animal defense.  In training, one application might be inoculating experienced shooters against the effects of recoil, similar to training the use of the shotgun to increase recoil tolerance for rifle shooters.

.44 magnum
.41 magnum
.454 Casull
.50 AE
.500 magnum

More Burpee Experimentation

The burpee has been a great revelation for martial arts technical practice.  Some favorites:

Navy Seal burpees (3 pushups, 2 leg raises per burpee) for chest, shoulder, and core development (anterior chain).  Perform at least 100 per workout in as few sets as possible to approximate prison conditioning.

357’s:  Perform 3 pushups, kickback, 5 pushups, kickback, 7 pushups, stand up.  This is my favorite method of increasing pushup volume.  20 repetitions of 357’s equate to 300 pushups.  Each set compounds fatigue in the pressing muscles, leading to great gains in endurance and mass.

Pullup followed by single leg reverse lunges (1 each leg) for repetitions (posterior chain development).  (60 repetitions recommended for joint health)

Kettlebell swing burpee for balanced conditioning (although form does tend to degrade if not careful).  (100 in as few sets as possible)

Dead man burpee: Drop down to the floor, remove hands off the floor, spread them far apart, bring them back together, hands back on the floor, execute a perfect pushup in a straight plank without bending back or legs, stand up.

Martial Technique Circuit: A dead man burpee followed by 1 kick per leg x 10 for each kick type (front rising kick, side kick, back kick, crescent kick, reverse crescent kick, others as preferred) or followed by a 4 strike combination of upper body strikes x 10.  The full workout includes 60 burpees, and is intended to be completed without rest for the purpose of maintaining combat applicable conditioning and technical proficiency.  A posterior chain focused day must be included to prevent muscle imbalances and keep the joints healthy.

Different Paths, Same Mountain

The martial way is not a walk, nor a marathon, nor a sprint.  It's a climb.  Sometimes you can climb in rapid bounds, making progress quickly.  Sometimes, it's a crawl.  Sometimes you backslide and need to recover lost ground again.  Sometimes the ground is solid with good traction.  Sometimes it slips into a gravel slide and you fall off the path.

There are many opinions on the proper method to scale the mountain.  Some will camp at the base and jeer at anyone who attempts, but those individuals quickly fade from sight as you make progress. 

Some who do make the trek say a sprint is best, but they tire quickly from their unsustainable exertion and don't climb very high nor very long, preferring to return to base camp and repeat the sprint when they regain strength to try again.  They are of the belief that the best method is to just sprint for longer and longer, until they are able to summit the mountain in a single intense effort.  Few of these types get near the top, though they often inspire those at base camp who get brave enough to consider their own attempt.  It's also a great way to get in shape, even though they never get close to the top.

Others say a steady pace is best, preferring to progress continuously, but at a slow pace.  These sorts insist on progress, but underestimate the mountain.  Sometimes climbs are predictable enough that a steady pace makes sense, but other times the slope increases, traction decreases, or surrounding weather worsens to the point that a more gradual pace or even setting camp partway up the slope is warranted.  At those times, just standing still on the wind ravaged slope is hard work, and progress will need to wait for rest or sunnier days.

So, the best way to summit the mountain is to move quickly when the going is easy, move gradually when the slope increases, and learn when to camp in place and lie in wait for strength to climb a steep pass.

There are also many paths up the mountain.  Some are brutal and unforgiving.  Some are more of a gradual grind.  Some paths just wind around the tip of the summit and never progress to the top.  Any way you get to the top, there is no way to rest up there.  You must struggle to the summit, and struggle to remain on top.

Martial Conditioning: The Burpee

Introduction

The humble burpee is an exercise named after its creator, Royal Burpee, who developed it as an assessment tool for determining physical capacity for military service.  Initially, the exercise was a 4 count front leaning rest without a pushup (squat down and touch ground, kick legs back into front leaning rest, kick legs back forward into low squat touching the ground, stand up).  This sequence was either performed for a set number of repetitions with a set cadence, or attempted for as many repetitions as possible in 20 seconds or 1 minute time intervals.  The assessment portion initially consisted of measuring the heart rate of the participant before, immediately after, and after a set rest interval to test cardiovascular response to movement and recovery rate.  Simultaneously, the participant was monitored for any physical movement compensations or dysfunctions (inability to properly squat, support bodyweight with the arms, or the presence of positive symptoms such as pain, or inability to complete the prescribed amount or duration of movements).  This original intent of the burpee has been largely forgotten in the modern military, since the original assessment was designed to quickly and easily screen the physical readiness of a very large army of draft conscripts with minimal equipment, rather than assessing the combat fitness capacity of trained volunteer recruits, which is more compatible with modern military assessment practices.

Although the assessment intent of the burpee was lost to history, the movement was found to have hidden utility as a framework for sequential movement.  It turns out that adding a pushup, or more, to the burpee can turn the movement into an incredibly exhausting calisthenics sequence that allows for training of compliance with uncomfortable orders, tolerance of physical fatigue, concentration on tasks, and discipline in the face of pain.  This 'bug' of the burpee (pain and exhaustion combined with sequential compliance) has since become a feature in bootcamp training programs, prison hierarchies, and civilian fitness centers.  These modifications are numerous, and include the following variants of the burpee, now used more for building physical capacity than assessing it.

1 pump burpees: This is the classic training variant, which consists of lowering into a front leaning rest, but now adds a pushup before returning to the low squat and standing up.  These can quickly increase fatigue through the whole body, especially with the fast turnaround time between the pushup and standing back up.  Some also do this version with a jump and clap overhead at the end to increase the intensity of the exercise and the full body power requirement.

2 pump burpee:  This is the same as the 1 pump with two pushups added instead of one.

Navy Seals: This is a 3 pump burpee, with added knee tucks for the first and second repetitions in the upper position of the front leaning rest (first left knee, then right knee).  The third pushup is performed without any knee raise.

4 pump, 5 pump: Self explanatory.

 8 count bodybuilder (Marine Corps):  Drop into low squat, kick feet back into front leaning rest, drop chest to floor, push up, kick legs apart in front leaning rest, kick legs back together, kick forward into low squat, stand up.

.357's: Drop down into a low squat, kick back into front leaning rest, perform 3 pushups, kick feet forward into downward dog, kick legs back into front leaning rest, perform 5 pushups, kick back into downward dog then forward into front leaning rest again, perform 7 pushups, kick forward into low squat, stand up.

8 count bodybuilder with kickback (12 count bodybuilder): Drop into low squat, kick feet back into FLR, drop chest to floor, push up, kick legs apart, kick them back together, kick feet forward into downward dog, kick them back into FLR, drop chest to floor, push up, kick forward into low squat, stand up.

The variations on burpees are innumerable and lend well to a great deal of modification.  To prevent boredom or failure to complete a movement, it is common to vary slightly across repetitions, always by adding to the movement, never by subtracting.  Things to add include a standing toe touch followed by a deep squat prior to kicking back into the front leaning rest to build flexibility, a sharp blow to the midsection prior to beginning each repetition to build toughness, mountain climbers or kick backs in the FLR to target the core, or any number of pushup repetitions or variations of pushup.  Another common modification is to add a pullup at the end of each repetition to target the back musculature and prevent pushing muscle imbalances in the shoulder girdle.  If a movement is not being completed, another good idea is to jog in place or for a small number of yards to recover between repetitions or between sets.

If complemented with kettlebell swings, pullups, dips, or other calisthenics, and running, burpees are a foundation for uncommon levels of fitness and musculature strength as well as endurance.

I would also like to recommend my own preferred burpee variation specifically appropriate for martial artists.  It's the 12 count bodybuilder followed by one kick with each leg.  Set a goal to cover every type of kick a set number of times in the workout and the workout is only over after every type of kick has been performed for the goal number.  As you increase in fitness, add one upper body strike of each type for a set number as well.  Also add forward falls and backwards falls to initiate every other technique to maintain practice with those techniques.  This can easily expand a workout to an hour or more of continuous burpees and technique practice with obvious benefits for endurance, flexibility, and strength.  Adding a pullup to the burpee sequence at least once per week should be sufficient to maintain pulling and grip strength as well.

Muscles Worked

Just about any muscle imaginable, although most common variations target the anterior chain much more heavily than the posterior chain, which means burpees are best supplemented with deadlifts, swings, pullups, or back bridges.

Why Do Burpees?

Because they amplify the conditioning effect of a sequence of exercises by compressing the time to completion and encouraging continuous movement.  My former practice of 100 kicks and 100 pushups in sets of 10 never increased my endurance or muscle definition.  Incorporating both into a compressed burpee sequence increases both.  If I can build adequate muscle size for my martial arts practice through pushups alone by distributing them out in the form of burpees, why lift heavier?  The intensity of the exercise alone actively facilitates hypertrophy as well as recovery speed.  Increasing one's speed of recovery is one reason to prioritize burpees as a method of distributing physical practice.


Likely Results of Burpees

These world record holders in the burpee are exemplars of how the body adapts to the exercise at extreme repetitions.  Notice the proportional distribution of muscle, no excess fat deposits, and no areas of underdevelopment.  These body types are ideal for functioning well in the rigors of combat.
 
 

The Subversion of the Media: Undermining Sexuality

One of the less appreciated consequences of the media being controlled by a small cabal of racially foreign bad actors has been the indirect manipulation of sexuality within the host population, either intentionally or as a latent product of targeted casting practices within the entertainment sector.
One of the foremost purposes of media is to deliver stories to the populace that reinforce dominant cultural practices and values, but a secondary and vital function is the identification of culturally approved sexualized identities, most notably in the heroes the media chooses to edify.

The importance of media control is exemplified in the nature of women.  They are socially conditioned to a very high degree where it concerns the development of their sexual preferences.  Before finding a man attractive, it is almost necessary for a woman to first vet their chosen partner against the preferences of close friends and family as a way of testing the man's identity against socially sanctioned popular opinion.  Finding the wrong man attractive can expose a woman to social ostracization, which is a form of personal annihilation in the estimation of females, who are by default defined and valued largely through the opinions of their collective. 

The media constitutes the most direct way of transmitting mass opinion, not only in politics and entertainment, but also in sexual selection. Therefore, the men that are most highly regarded in the media are also those who are most eligible as bachelors.  To be a man who is seen and talked about is to be sexually selected by women, and the media is the gate keeper to that conversation, and by extension, to sexual access with the women who converse.  The family and friends milieux were the original contexts of this vetting, which has now been extended to the mass media, absent any concern for long term consequences.  This is evident when you consider that women of our culture were variously conditioned to sexually desire a poor rhinestone wearing musician in the 50's, then 4 boys from Liverpool in the 60's, then long haired drug users in the 70's and 80's, flannel wearing heroin addicts in the 90's, vampires, sorcerers, and werewolves in the 00's, and criminal blacks in the 10's.  The distinct lack of female humiliation in the face of their ridiculous and capricious preferences should explain both their gullibility as well as their general lack of capacity for self criticism.  If the war for American sexual selection is to be won, it will be a man's war to wage.  We cannot count on women to help us defend their own heritage, and this treachery should be remembered as we strive to retake control of our institutions.  After the lampposts are fully occupied with our subverters, we should not spare the rod where it concerns the fairer collaborators against our people.  Mandatory breeding policies and retributive financial and criminal punishments toward former collaborators should be considered the least of what justice demands after the people of the United States retake their democracy.

In the past decade, white identity of male role models has become a signal for social ostracism and female shame.  This effect only applies to white actors and is absent toward men of other identities.  The long term effects of this media bias are now becoming apparent.  For the demographics of this country to be maintained, the media must be pacified and defanged.  This may or may not require targeted action of an extra-legal kind toward the purveyors of anti-white propaganda.

2020 update: The current BLM riots can be identified by their targets.  Don't ask who the attackers are.  Ask who is targeted for violence or protest.  Statues of white men throughout history who have been politically or militarily venerated are targeted for destruction or vandalism.  White men are their targets.  Individually, we are being subjected to widespread humiliation, violence, and murder in the course of these riots.  Our women have joined forces with the attackers and most of them deserve to be regarded as traitors.  If we prevail in the conflict, let them be treated accordingly.  This is the time to stand tall and refuse to bow before the mob.  If targeted, do what is necessary to protect the health of yourself and your loved ones.  If confronted by the mob and asked to prostrate yourself, refuse.  Do not fear to be imprisoned or killed in the course of righteous struggle.  If targeted for your identity alone, counterattack and win.  Let the cowards of law enforcement lock you up for self defense after the looters have run away.  If you are forced to defend yourself, do not leave bullets in the mag, a blade clean, or surviving attackers to run away.  If acting righteously has become criminal, then be a criminal.  Now is the time to stand up for your ancestors, your heritage, and your birthright.  May all the blood that runs be the blood of traitors, rioters, and provocateurs.

Weapon Systems: The Martial Virtues of the Pump Shotgun

The pump action shotgun has remained largely unaltered in concept since its introduction in the late 1800's. Even vintage pump shotguns still effectively compete with modern semiautomatic designs. To understand why this design has endured so long and appears to fulfill an archetypical martial expression, it's important to understand the roles it serves and the history of its evolution.

Background

The continued existence of the modest pump shotgun as a viable option when semiautomatic rifles are now economically available for comparable prices can help provide some clues as to which advantages are unique to the shotgun alone. The shotgun in historical context is essentially the contemporary progeny of the musket, and it shares many of the same advantages and disadvantages of its ancestor when compared to a rifle. Advantages of the musket upon its introduction were the devastating effect of a musket load relative to handgun rounds, a durable design, a simple method of operation, and with lead shot composed of many projectiles, a high probability of hitting a human target per trigger pull. Disadvantages included slow reloading, cumbersome size, perpetually inaccurate projectiles, the weight of the weapon, and the large, ballistically inefficient projectiles historically necessary for effective terminal performance. As technology in metallurgy advanced, inventors began to eliminate certain disadvantages of muskets which caused longarm development to diverge into 2 specializations: simple shotguns and precision rifles.

Rifles sought to improve on the musket by improving precision of barrels and replacing large, slow projectiles with small, fast projectiles exhibiting more efficient ballistics. These advantages entailed certain disadvantages, however. Rifles are more expensive to produce than a shotgun of the same size due to the precision of the barrels and components. They also require more intensive maintenance, configuration, and cleaning to ensure performance to a precise standard, which can degrade with neglect. They are much more complex than the muskets they replaced and can be less durable in consequence. Further, the ammunition is also more expensive and must be loaded to especially strict specifications in order to fire safely, effectively, and consistently which can render the shooter dependent upon industrial production. To configure a rifle and ammunition additionally requires intensive measurement and adjustment. Achieving good hit probability per trigger pull then requires intensive training and further precise adjustments. Even when a rifleman has learned these skills they still need to learn combat tactics which are not addressed in the least by rifle maintenance and accuracy training alone.

The shotgun developed to serve different priorities and a different philosophy of combat. Rather than improving on accuracy and precision, shotguns attempted to fully realize the advantages of the musket (simplicity of construction and operation, reliability, durability, devastating effect, and good hit probability with multiple projectiles) while eliminating certain disadvantages (weight, size, and slow reloading). What results is a firearm that is easy to use, effective, reasonably quick to reload, cheap, simple, durable, reliable, and resilient despite parts breakage.

Simplicity

The greatest virtue of the shotgun is its simplicity of design. Homemade shotguns can be made with a shotgun shell, a 3/4" steel tube, a 1" steel tube, an endcap, a washer, a sharpened screw, and JB Weld. (Another reason why gun control is impossible). The pump action shotgun is merely a refinement of those core elements. The 3/4" tube is equivalent to a makeshift barrel, the 1" tube and endcap is a minimalist bolt and chamber, the screw is a primitive firing pin assembly. Stock, grip, and bead sight are optional additions that make the homemade gun comparable in functionality and identical in lethality to any single shot 12 gauge. This minimalism of assembly lends well to user serviceability. Even the ammunition is a standardized kind of musket load contained in a plastic shell. In fact, in situations where shells are not attainable, but lead, cloth, and powder are available, a shooter can still reseat a primer on a used shotgun shell and muzzle load a contemporary shotgun with powder and lead shot to yield a makeshift musket with equal power to a regular 12 gauge shell. Finally, the operation of the shotgun is simple. Press the slide release, pull and push the slide, sight the bead at the center of the target, and pull the trigger. The simplicity of function additionally expands the tolerances of the gun for error. A slightly misaligned bead sight is equally as accurate as a zeroed bead when using buckshot. This means a shooter in combat conditions can knock a bead sight out of alignment or even knock it off the barrel without losing combat effective accuracy. Underpowered shells that would fail to cycle in a semi auto can also be manually ejected by the pump which makes a well made pump action less finicky about functioning with a variety of ammunition. The gun can potentially work as well for a novice as an expert, which reduces the degree of skill necessary for combat effectiveness, thus saving time for a vigilant civilian with priorities beyond preparing for war, which uniquely qualifies the shotgun as an easily wielded weapon by those with minimal training for tasks like perimeter defense in a civil emergency.

Even the names of the ammo indicate simplicity of purpose! Birdshot kills a bird in one shot. Buckshot kills deer sized quarry in one shot. Brenneke and magnum hardcast slugs kill just about anything short of an elephant... and designing an effective 12 gauge elephant slug is certainly within the realm of possibility provided there are hunters willing to fire one within 50 yards of quarry that large! By comparison, rifle and handgun calibers are subject to endless debates concerning the best caliber to use loaded to what specifications for how many shots to incapacitate a human threat. Shotgun logic is simpler. Shoot 9 pellet 2 3/4” 00 buckshot at human threats. One shot within 50 yards is almost always sufficient to stop any human threat. Repeat in the rare instance another shot is required.

Reliability

Pump action shotguns almost require purposeful mistreatment by the user to induce a malfunction. In place of precision, shotgun manufacturers have emphasized durability, especially in shotguns of the pre-polymer era. There are still police departments and military branches issuing perfectly functional steel and wood shotguns from the 70's and 80's with much less intensive maintenance than that required to refurbish a rifle. These are great weapons when one values reliability over precision and ammo capacity in situations where only one shot will likely be needed to resolve a threat. A similar justification might be used when selecting a revolver over a semi-auto handgun to avoid malfunctions.

In the rare instances malfunctions do occur, pump shotguns are also resilient and modular in their operation, capable of maintaining operation even with multiple parts broken or removed. If the magazine tube is broken or jammed, single shots can be loaded nearly as quickly as working the pump with some practice. If the shell elevator malfunctions, shells can be loaded directly into the barrel. If the extractor breaks, shells can be pried out of the barrel with the edge of a pocket knife. If the ejector breaks, shells can be removed by racking the slide back and manually prying the shells out of the action with one's finger. As mentioned before, if new shotgun shells are unattainable, the plastic on used shells can be cut off the brass and discarded, the primer can be replaced in the brass hull then loaded into the barrel and chambered, then powder, patches and shot can be muzzle loaded with a ram rod to yield a fireable musket for hunting or defense, even in cases where all the malfunctions mentioned have occurred simultaneously.

Durability/Longevity

The simplicity of components contribute to the durability of pump shotguns by reducing the complexity and fragility of specific parts, but the pressures contained and directed by a shotgun are also significantly less than those of a rifle or even a typical handgun. The maximum piezo pressure limit for the diminutive 9 mm handgun cartridge for example is 35,000 psi: 3x greater than the 11,500 psi limit recommended for 12 gauge shotshells. Less pressure means less noise per shot as well as potentially less wear on pressure directing components like barrels, bolts, and slide locks. Considering that these parts are usually overbuilt in most pump shotguns, longevity tends to be an intrinsic attribute of these guns.

Devastating effect

This trait of the 12 gauge appears indisputable based on cursory observation of shotgun fodder. The 12 gauge 'removes meat and bone' at close range, decimates a torso with multiple messy wounds, and can implode a human head with nightmarish results.

However, when considering the ballistics of 00 buckshot, the standard load for human combatants, the effectiveness of a shotgun is less obvious and more paradoxical. Even though many pellets delivered at once can be devastating, a single pellet of 00 buckshot is nearly a ballistic twin to the meager .32 acp handgun cartridge, conveying about 180 foot pounds of energy, or about half the energy of a mild 9 mm cartridge. It also seems this limited power per pellet may be unresolvable. Loading a shell to fire pellets more than 1,300 feet per second increases the power of each, but also reduces hit probability by increasing the spread of shot. However, this modesty of performance per pellet may have certain advantages in instances where one desires minimal risk of collateral damage at range. 00 buckshot retains lethal effect only to about 400 feet away due to the wiffle ball ballistics of the imperfectly round pellets deforming against one another through the barrel. A 00 buckshot pellet fired to 400 feet conveys less than 50 foot pounds of energy. It loses over half the energy it carried at the barrel and becomes essentially nonlethal.

So, how is a regular load of 9 pellet 00 buckshot within 15 yards so unquestionably devastating to human targets to the point where even 9 shots of .32 acp seem incomparable?  This outcome may owe to the simultaneity with which the individual pellets are meant to hit the target. The hydrostatic shock theory posits that the stretching and displacement of tissue when shot can be an additional source of wound trauma. Rifles accomplish this effect through increased projectile velocity which creates enough energy to separate bodily tissues, but a massive amount of energy per shot is required (bullet speed of 1,800-2,000 fps minimum for a human target, depending on who you ask). Shotguns may be the cheapest, simplest way to accomplish a type of hydrostatic shock by compromising the integrity of the tissues struck instead of increasing the power and speed of individual projectiles. While pellets fired one at a time will create separate wound tracks that close before the next pellet hits, pellets fired all at once result in pellets hitting tissues while they are already stretched and compromised. This further tears and displaces tissue resulting in essentially one giant wound that does not close because the elasticity of the tissue itself has been destroyed. This process may be directly opposite to the effect of a rifle round. A high energy rifle round increases intrasomatic pressure to the point that surrounding structures are damaged through overpressure. Buckshot compromises structures to the point that bodily fluids are under-pressured to sustain the organism. Both effects are greater than the sum of energies of individual projectiles in motion.

Only slugs are able to maintain suitable performance at range, exceed 1,400 feet per second at the barrel, and quite possibly induce hydrostatic shock with a single round, although according to Chuck Hawks, they "combine decreased accuracy, low velocity, low sectional density, low ballistic coefficient, rainbow trajectory, and heavy recoil." They perform about as well as musket balls, except they don't penetrate as well, which means only boutique hardened slugs with improved sectional density are applicable for large game or predator defense. In other words, just as a handgun is used to fight your way to a shotgun, a slug gun should be used primarily to fight your way to a rifle, or in instances where practicality, economics, or legality constrain one to use only a shotgun in situations where a rifle would be more effective.

Great Hit Probability

Though the most devastating effect of shotguns is delivered at close ranges, shotguns with buckshot still have merits at intermediate ranges (50 yards, or across a small field). Even with the advent of submachine guns capable of burst fire, pump shotguns are still able to fire more lead downrange in less time. Given the .32 acp as a fair comparison to a pellet of 00 buckshot, a single shotshell of 9 pellet 00 buckshot is equivalent in its combat impact to a 9 round burst from a .32 acp submachine gun. It can pepper and suppress a group of combatants, injuring some and forcing others behind cover. Shotguns also have perhaps the best hit probability per trigger pull compared to rifles, submachine guns, and pistols at 50 yards. At least 1 pellet out of 9-12 per shot is likely to impact a combatant at that range, which means at least one combatant injured or even killed per trigger pull. When one considers the effect of multiple scatter shots in succession, the shotgun can effectively suppress, injure, demoralize, and thin the ranks of a large group of assaulting fighters in very few shots given the element of surprise. This earned the pump shotgun the name 'riot gun' for this reason. The shotgun excels at perimeter defense and repelling a group attack. A great gun for 'social work.' For those assailants who do manage to close distance, the effect of buckshot at point blank range is almost guaranteed to be lethally gruesome, which can help to further discourage combatants not already struck by multiple projectiles as they advance.

For this reason, a perimeter shotgun loaded with slugs for stopping opponents at distance followed by buckshot for suppression is an outstanding defense. Due to the advanced firing rate possible, a single pump gun essentially duplicates the effect of several musketeers from centuries past, many of whom historically loaded buckshot for increased hit probability per shot.

For all the reasons described, the pump shotgun remains a common weapon a century after its development. It isn't precise, fancy, or efficient. It doesn't need to be. The fact it reliably suppresses or neutralizes combatants with very few trigger pulls is merit enough to recommend it still.

Spearing the Ghost Buffalo: On Finally Completing a Ph.D.

A Ph.D. is a strange thing to pursue.  It is regarded with an almost mystical aura by the typical person precisely because of how incomprehensible its process of attainment can be.  A medical doctor has obvious social capital simply because of the economic realities associated with medicine: you'll never run out of customers, and you can charge what you want.  An undergraduate degree holder has somewhat reduced social capital due to the increasingly raw deal that college has become: some of your dumbest, most impulsive high school friends could attain a liberal arts degree from the modern American university so long as they will go in debt to obtain it.  Master's degrees gain you something tangible in the sense of a demonstrated 'mastery' of a technology or skill and a badge of initiation into the world of white collar labor.  But a doctor of philosophy in a liberal arts subject matter?  What the hell is that?  What does it show the average person?  Understanding the answer almost requires a college degree in itself.

Here's some illustrations of why a Ph.D. in a nonmedical subject matter baffles the average person.

In order to successfully defend your dissertation, you must first demonstrate comprehensive knowledge of your field, usually in the form of published works that pass peer review, or more traditionally, a set of challenge questions posed by experts in the field.  In most programs, you need to complete this process twice, to prevent lucky breaks from granting you the right to defend a dissertation.  This process is never guaranteed in the same way that undergraduate 'exams' often are.  These are never multiple choice or rote memorization tasks.  In fact, the professors often have no incentive whatsoever to pass you.  They aren't paid extra for time devoted to you, and you've already paid the university in full.  Sometimes these professors will fuck with you just because they can.  In the case of publications, editorial peer review boards sometimes have actual disincentives to publish your work.  Therefore, you need to impress multiple career experts in your subject area with your degree of knowledge, creativity, independence, and cleverness on at least two occasions with a product output equal to two published articles in peer reviewed journals or a viable grant proposal and a published work.  And none of those experts are under any obligation to like your work or pass you.

The coursework is also less forgiving.  The kind of classes chosen are often selected without consideration of your readiness.  It is simply assumed that you are well enough educated to manage the work.  If you aren't, then literally no one will care as you fail your classes.  I personally spent 20 hours a week on studying to earn a barely passing grade in Professional Statistics.  This class was taught by a stranger in another field who could care less if I kept up or made the grade.  Through sheer grit, I eked out a passing grade for this course, despite a history of difficulty with mathematics and only one undergraduate course in the subject.

If you want the Ph.D., you find a way.

Another course had us execute a feat of memorization for the final exam for no other reason than the professor wanted to toy with us.  We had to recreate a flow chart from memory including the shapes and positions of dialogue boxes for over 100 items, none of which I can remember today.  However, I damn well knew every single item the day of the exam, or passing the required class was impossible.  These sort of games are commonplace.  In the martial arts, a good metaphor is the hazing practice of thousands of pushups, squats, situps, and basic drills just to demonstrate toughness and willingness to endure hardship.

Both of these classes I took 8 years prior to being able to begin my dissertation.  Before then, I finished a Master's degree and attained professional certification and licensure.

I've gone in debt nearly $100,000.  This kind of debt burden requires you to land a job of at least $100,000 a year in order to have any hope of paying your debt back in 10 years while supporting a family and owning a home.  I consider it a humility brace.  After 10 years, I'll have enough money for a sports car, kid's college, retirement, or underground supply bunker, but until then, I pay back my debt to society that they neither understand nor approve of.  It's like an abstract type of prison sentence paid back over a very long time for the crime of staying in college too long.  Just remember as you pay your exorbitant debt, other countries give their citizens this shit for free...

After your coursework and examinations are successfully passed, you have now earned the right to begin the worst undertaking of your adult life: a dissertation.  First, some background.

An undergraduate degree of the modern day signifies one's ability to show up to class on time regularly for 4 years, read and write, speak to professors in a socially appropriate way, and not commit crimes in the dormitories.  Most individuals can attain this, and going in debt to do it is foolish.  A Master's degree signifies mastery of a subject area, such that one could be employed to do that thing for a job with minimally guaranteed competence.  This justifies a certain degree of debt.  A Ph.D. signifies a NOVEL CONTRIBUTION to a subject area.  Something exploratory that no one has ever done before.  An abstract attainment sometimes completely divorced from economic value.  Furthermore, a Ph.D. requires one to determine their own research methods, technologies, assistance staff, budget, and timeline, as well as the technical work of compiling data, writing up the results, and soliciting feedback from the dissertation committee.  And the worst part?  No one cares about any of it.  Not your committee, not your spouse, not your kids.  No one.  Most likely, not even people in your field of study.  The only people who care are you, your committee who is made to care, and any future dupes who want to extend your frontier research line.  For however long it takes you to finish your dissertation, your only friends will be dead people or living dead people who write about your topic.  You will work long hours only to receive apathy and disdain from typical people who will wonder why you don't do something more useful.  You'll even begin to hate yourself as you grow older, sicker, sadder.  You'll pay to work and grow to hate your work.  At the same time, it will be the only thing you think about.  You'll grapple with your subject matter.  Argue with it.  Just to feel some facsimile of a human connection as you sequester yourself in a prolonged monastic routine of self abasement.  You'll regard current events, politics, economics, even your own livelihood as curiosities occurring in the background of your all consuming obsession to finish the degree and escape your self imposed cloister.  Your marriage will suffer, your friendships will suffer, your sex drive, health, and finances will suffer.  And YOU will suffer.  All so you can contribute new knowledge to an uncaring society.  You will carefully polish thousands of pearls for direct delivery to the pig pen.  And you'll go in debt to do it.

In the course of my own dissertation, I worked a full time unpaid job seeking out old psychometric tests that are no longer in use, soliciting and running participants through a novel teaching methodology, and processing all data as well as writing my dissertation document.  I was self appointed CEO and director of my own little laboratory.  This required me to independently learn how to administer psychometric tests, run audio software, engineer sound, teach advanced musical skills to complete novices, compile spreadsheet data, run operations in Excel, decide which statistical tests to run, run those statistical tests using open source software, calculate certain statistical tests by hand, write the results in APA format, rerun the same tests every week to inductively learn whether my research was a waste of time or a breakthrough, and learn how to tolerate it all for over 2 years straight.  All my friends left town.  I became a stranger to my family.  Somehow, I stayed sober, which I count as a personal accomplishment.  Did I mention that I taught 6 college classes per week at the same time?  My title at the university: teaching assistant.  I didn't even get to be called professor for teaching over 600 students.  Only my students called me professor, and I never bothered to correct them.  My take home pay was slightly higher than $15 per hour.  My own students could have outearned me easily with high school diplomas.

The offhand way I list these requirements isn't meant to imply that the demands of the dissertation came without significant setbacks.  I had to determine which tests to run and track them down through interlibrary loan, which required 6 months of research in psychometric assessment.  I had to run all experimental sessions myself.  Prior to this, I needed IRB approval to run my experiment, which took 6 months of revised proposals.  I had to teach myself statistics, and if I couldn't understand something, no one I knew could help me.  Do you know why it's important to calculate the normality of residuals when running an independent samples t-test to support a significant difference between demographic groups in your sample?  I got to figure that out using textbooks and 10 year old forum threads.  You tell me if it's a marketable skill.  When my equipment malfunctioned, I got to learn how to fix it, so I guess I also dabbled in fucking variable capacitor physics.  Again, no help, no human connection.  Also, my coursework was close to expiring, since I had taken some of these courses 8 years (!) ago.  Meaning I would essentially need to quit college or retake those courses I barely found a way to pass the first time if I outstayed my welcome.  Keep in mind, I had my 2nd comp publication repeatedly rejected by multiple journals, meaning I was not eligible to defend my dissertation, and would shortly run out of time to try.  I somehow satisfied the 2nd comp requirement by completing both a publication and a grant submission in 6 months alongside teaching classes, running participants, processing data, and writing.

I also found my libido flagging as a consequence of a zinc deficiency acquired from my strict plant based diet, which resulted in a sudden loss of my libido and sperm counts.  It took me months to figure out that high phytic acid intake through dried beans were sapping nutrients out of my body (canned beans are much healthier).  In the meantime, I assumed I was getting depressed and losing my libido for psychological reasons, and as my attraction to my wife began to decline, I eventually found only one 20 year old undergraduate I supervised was able to elicit any feeling of attraction from me.  No one tells you that a lost libido also makes a man far pickier about females.  A lesser man would have acted on this situation.  Rather, I was smart enough to know there must be a physiological cause for my declining physical functions and I had to reject this young woman's growing closeness to me and watch her take an interest in a boy so I could go home to a nearly sexless marriage.  As this happened, I eventually became unable to sexually perform at all for days at a time while I worked to complete all degree requirements (some of which were outside my control) in hopes of starting and supporting a family with a woman with whom I could no longer sexually function.  Fixing this situation required me to conquer grinding depression as I watched this beautiful young woman slipping away from me, serious revisions to my diet to reverse nutrient deficiencies, and nearly 2 months of struggling to regain sexual function using diet.

If you want the Ph.D., you find a way.

After finding the tests, obtaining IRB approval, administering the tests, teaching the participants, running the stats, writing the document, you now need to propose and defend the document.  That means, you will approach 5 Ph.D. level professors who don't care about you and convince them to be unpaid members of your committee.  They receive no incentive to join your committee or pass your work.  They are also experts in the field, so they will regard your 'novel contribution' with suspicion and criticism.  Your job is to answer their every criticism and craft a dissertation that forces and persuades them to sign off on your work.  You will do this by making your proposal and defense in person.  In my case, my proposal meeting took a whole year to schedule.  My defense meeting took 6 months.  This is due to the sheer busyness of these 5 professors who literally could not feasibly agree to 2 hours on a given day.  Somehow, the day was set.  Even then, one of them missed the meeting and needed to be hunted down for a one-on-one review of my work.

With a successful defense complete, you can now call yourself Dr., but you still need the official approval of the graduate school, so you hunt down signatures to be filed by very strict non-negotiable deadlines for graduation (don't forget that your credits are expiring as you gather these documents!!).  Those 5 professors who were so hard to pin down the first time, now need to be pinned down again within weeks.  To add further complexity, your 100+ page document must conform to special graduate school formatting conventions in order to be accepted.  If it is not accepted, you might just miss your graduation deadline and need to try again in 6 months.  As your credits expire.

This process in total is incomprehensible to most.  A good metaphor would be the hunt.  Particularly, a hunt for a rare or legendary animal, like a ghost white buffalo.  If you spear the rare, fierce animal, you receive the accolades of fellow hunters.  If you fail to catch the animal, others will ridicule you as foolish or over-ambitious and you'll receive no credit.  Some will even question whether your goal is even possible.  Therefore, the experience of a doctoral candidate is one of unending existential anxiety in part because some of your degree attainments require sheer good luck.  It is one of the very few human endeavors wherein you either become a complete success or an abject failure and there is NO in between.  It is possible to do everything properly and still fail to satisfy all requirements in the requisite time.  If you succeed, you are granted social status and a very good chance of higher lifetime income.  If you fail, you are worse off than someone who merely earned a Master's degree and started a career.  For that reason, it's a ballsy move and not something to be recommended to the impulsive, weak willed, or easily discouraged.